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1. Discuss theimportance of the majorpolitical and socio-economicdevelopments that influenced the Indian writers in English.
Ans. Indian writing in English is primarily a result of the English colonial rule in India spanning almost two centuries. There is an undeniable relation between the literary work and the historical background out of which it arises. In spite of the western imperialism and colonialism the Indian culture has grown incredibly over the past two hundred years. It is a well known fact that the Englishmen came to India on the pretext of trade and immediately realized that a stable political control would substantially increase their profits. The Industrial Revolution in England could only sustain itself through the capital made in the Indian territories in the form of revenue collection. They then commenced to annex different territories in and around India and set up a colonial empire. The British rule completely ruined the agricultural self- sufficiency of the farmers and the trade of silk cloth saw a downslide due to the English factory produced cloth more easily and cheaply available. The weavers and artisans lost their job and had to sustain themselves by working in cotton plantations. The old existing order underwent a complete and systematic destruction and overhaul bringing misery, poverty and death to millions of Indians.
After a few years of colonial rule and consolidation, the English empire got embroiled in a hotly debated and discussed issue of introduction of the – English language in educational institutes. In a watershed decision English was introduced in the Indian education system, and was understood to be a different epistemological template in which not only the language but lifestyle and culture was imposed. Many reformers especially Raja Rammohun Roy, the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, vociferously supported the teaching of the move to bring about economic reforms that would provide new employment opportunities in the administration that required the knowledge of the English language. A systematic enterprise detailed by Macaulay, a member of colonial. Indian parliament, than began in which “mimic men” were produced through the education system in India, who were “a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.” The old methods of teaching were made redundant and died a slow death as the earlier system of education was insufficient to cope with the changing social, economic and political circumstances. As it is apparent with scorn and despise towards Indian languages, the sole purpose regarding English was to strengthen their rule and brainwash the colonized; and not to empower or produce scholars.
Moreover, the colonizers only had contempt and disdain for the established languages, knowledge, beliefs, religion and educational institutes, labeling them as being irrational, pagan, barbaric, unscientific and immoral. Macaulay articulated the sense of superiority that the westerners felt regarding their culture and knowledge by making a very derogatory and biased statement that “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature India and Arabia”. He believed that an educated minority would gradually educate the others, this concept came to be known as the ‘filtration effect’ but it remained flawed and unsuccessful. With the introduction of the English language the missionaries got a better hold on the country and political the empire established the notions that it is a benevolent authority and has now taken the responsibility of bringing light in the form of knowledge to the ignorant population. As a result of English education a few writers and poets converted to Christianity and imitated a style of writing prose and poetry like the English Romantics and classics.
The first phase of Indian English literature roughly comprises the half century before the Great Revolt of 1857.
This was a period when English education and Western ideas had begun to act as a great liberating force in a country which had been suffering from political instability for about a century. Henry Derozio’s ‘Poems’ written in 1827, reflect his reformist idealism and iconoclastic zeal and he along with a few other visionary writers, poets and artistes worked for the eradication of social evils and called themselves the ‘young Bengal’. In fact his contemporaries like Michael Madhusudan Dutt had great technical competence and wrote a long poem on the Christian theme of the original sin., ‘Visions of the Past’ (1849). Krishna Mohan Banerjea’s play The Persecuted (1831) showcased the religious orthodoxies plaguing the Hindu society.
The colonizers were initially largely successful in creating a class’ of interpreters between them and the masses. Education as a tool in the hands of the English proved to a great ideological weapon to legitimize their authority in the colonies. Evidently a hierarchy is created in which the western education model encompasses wisdom and knowledge as against the colonized people who are imbeciles. The education introduced was naturally lopsided and it not only valorized English traditions and way of life, it also provided the newly urban English educated a very limited and constricted space for liberal thought. The Indians began to believe that the colonizers had a moral responsibility to fulfill as the country was depicted to be infected by depravity. bestiality and religious bigotry. The evangelists propagated Christianity in schools indirectly by teaching biblical scriptures rather than English grammar. The “weaving together of morality with a specifically English literature had important ideological consequences”, which would mean that English behaviour leads to a moral behaviour and ultimately the colonizing country ostensibly projected itself as being a guiding light to civilize the colonies. Though the English always had their propaganda and selfish intention intact, a positive consequence was that the “Indians had mastered the coloniser’s language and further, had by the 1820s begun to adopt it as their chosen medium of expression. These pioneering works of poetry, fiction, drama, travel, and belles-lettres are little read today except by specialists, but when they were published they were, by the mere fact of being in English, audacious acts of mimicry and self-assertion. More than this, the themes they touched on and the kinds of social issues they engaged with would only be explored by other Indian literatures several- decades later.”
The entry of Indian English writing in the English canon is often debated as some of the critics are of the opinion that this genre got an acceptance only in the late 1950’s when the Indian writers decided to establish it as a discipline, while others regard the works initially written by Indians in the English language as the real formation of this literary genre. The first novel by an Indian in English Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Rajmohan’s Wife appeared quite late in 1864 and is his only novel in English, the rest fourteen successful novels he wrote in Bengali. KylasChunderDutt’sA Journal of Forty-Eight Hours of the Year 1945 (1835) preceding Bankim’s novel is about an imaginary armed uprising against the British but cannot be classified as the first novel as it came out in a journal. Mehrotra elucidates on KylasChunderDutt’s work that:
Insurrections seems a commonplace idea, until we realise that the idea is being expressed for the first time in Indian literature, and would next find expression only in folk songs inspired by the events of 1857. It is uncanny that the year of the uprising in Dutt’s imagination comes within two years of India’s actual year of independence; uncanny, too, the coincidence that the work should have been published in the same year that Macaulay deliveredhis ‘Minute’. In a double irony, the insurgents are all urbanized middle- class Indians with the best education colonialism could offer, the very class Macaulay had intended as ‘interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern.
Thus, the language of command’ is stood on its head and turned into the language of subversion, suggests itself as the imaginative beginnings of a nation.’ [6] The revolt of 1857 was a turning point and India became an empire under the British rule, represented by the viceroy. The revolt saw a unification of the warring Indian states against a common enemy. The heroism, valour and courage demonstrated by Indians inspired a lot of folk songs, poems and literature detailing the battle and brutality with which it was suppressed. The possibility of toppling the British rule looked viable but it took a century for Indians, to attain independence. The British formulated numerous rules and regulations to stipulate the authority of Indian princely states and other autonomous bodies and gained complete control over India. Censorship of literature increased many folds as the colonizers strictly monitored any writing that was seditious to the British policies, government or laws. Political themes were now discussed through literature in the guise of historical novels or romances which glorified the past rulers.
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āĻāĻŽāĻžāĻĻā§āϰ āĻāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻŦāĻĄā§āĻĄ āĻŦāĻžāĻā§ āĻ āĻā§āϝāĻžāϏ āϰāϝāĻŧā§āĻā§, āĻāĻŽāϰāĻž āĻā§ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāϞāĻžāĻŽ āϤāĻžāϰ āĻĨā§āĻā§ āĻāϤāĻā§āĻā§ āϏāĻŽāϝāĻŧ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧā§āĻāĻŋ āϤāĻžāϰ āĻāĻĒāϰ āĻŦā§āĻļā§ āĻā§āϰ āĻĻā§āĻāĨ¤ āϧāϰāĻž āϝāĻžāĻ āĻāĻ āϏāĻāĻžāϞ⧠āĻāĻ ā§ āĻāĻŽāĻŋ āĻāĻāĻāĻžāύāĻž āĻĒāĻžāĻāĻ āĻāĻŖā§āĻāĻž āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧā§āĻāĻŋ āĻāĻŋāύā§āϤ⧠āĻāϏāϞā§āĻ āĻāĻŋ āϏāĻŽā§āĻāĻŦ āĻāĻāĻāĻžāύāĻž āĻĒāĻžāĻāĻ āĻāύā§āĻāĻž āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻž? āĻāĻžāύāĻž āĻĒāĻžāĻāĻ āĻā§āύ āĻĻā§āĻ āĻāĻŖā§āĻāĻžāĻ āĻŽāύā§āϝā§āĻ āϧāϰ⧠āϰāĻžāĻāĻž āĻāĻŋāύā§āϤ⧠āĻāĻžāĻā§āĻāĻŋāĻāĻžāύāĻŋ āĻāĻĨāĻž āύāĻž, āĻāĻāĻā§ āĻā§āϝāĻŧāĻžāϞ āĻāϰāϞā§āĻ āĻĻā§āĻāĻž āϝāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻĒāĻžāĻāĻ āĻāύā§āĻāĻžāϰ āĻŽāĻžāĻā§ āĻāϤāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻāĻŽāĻžāĻĻā§āϰ āĻŽāύā§āϝā§āĻā§ āĻŦā§āϝāĻžāĻāĻžāϤ āĻāĻā§āĻā§āĨ¤ āĻšāϝāĻŧāϤ⧠āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻžāϰ āĻŽāĻžāĻā§āĻ āĻāĻŽāĻžāĻĻā§āϰ āĻĢā§āϏāĻŦā§āĻā§āϰ āύā§āĻāĻŋāĻĢāĻŋāĻā§āĻļāύ āĻā§āĻ āĻāϰāĻāĻŋ, āĻŽā§āĻāϞ āĻā§āĻ āĻāϰāĻāĻŋ, āĻāĻŋāĻāĻŦāĻž āĻāĻāĻāĻŋāĻāĻŦā§ āĻĸā§āĻā§ āĻŦāϏ⧠āĻāĻāĻŋāĨ¤ āĻāĻāĻžāĻŦ⧠⧍-ā§Š āĻāĻŖā§āĻāĻž āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻžāϰ āĻĒāϰ āĻāĻžāĻŦāĻāĻŋ āĻāĻ āύāĻž āĻāĻžāύāĻŋ āĻāϤ āĻŦā§āĻļāĻŋ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧā§ āĻĢā§āϞāϞāĻžāĻŽāĨ¤ āĻ āĻĨāĻ āĻāĻ āϏāĻŽāϝāĻŧāĻā§āĻā§āϤ⧠āϝāϤā§āĻā§āĻā§ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻž āϝā§āϤ⧠āϤāĻž āĻāĻŋāύā§āϤ⧠āĻšāϝāĻŧ āύāĻŋāĨ¤
āĻā§āύ āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻ āĻļāĻŋāĻāϤ⧠āĻāϤ āϏāĻŽāϝāĻŧ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāϞāĻžāĻŽ āϏā§āĻāĻž āĻāĻāύā§āĻ āĻŽā§āĻā§āϝ āĻŦāĻŋāώāϝāĻŧ āύāϝāĻŧ, āĻŦāϰāĻ āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻāĻŽāĻŋ āĻāϝāĻŧāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻāĻžāϞā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻŦā§āĻā§ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧā§āĻāĻŋ āϏā§āĻāĻžāĻ āĻŽā§āĻā§āϝ āĻŦāĻŋāώāϝāĻŧāĨ¤
āϏā§āϤāϰāĻžāĻ, āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāϤ⧠āĻŦāϏāĻžāϰ āϏāĻŽāϝāĻŧ āĻā§āύ āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻ āĻŽā§āĻāϏā§āĻĨ āĻāϰāĻžāϰ āĻāύā§āϝ āĻā§āύ āύāĻŋāϰā§āϧāĻžāϰāĻŋāϤ āϏāĻŽāϝāĻŧ āĻĢāĻŋāĻā§āϏāĻĄ āύāĻž āĻāϰ⧠āĻŦāϰāĻ āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻĒā§āϰāĻĨāĻŽ āĻĨā§āĻā§ āĻļā§āώ āĻĒāϰā§āϝāύā§āϤ āϞāĻžāĻāύ āĻŦāĻžāĻ āϞāĻžāĻāύ āĻāϝāĻŧā§āĻāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻžāĻāĻžāĻ āĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϧāĻŋāĻŽāĻžāύā§āϰ āĻāĻžāĻ āĻšāĻŦā§āĨ¤ āĻāĻāĻāĻž āĻĻāĻžāĻāϤāĻāĻžāĻā§āĻāĻž āĻ āύā§āĻā§āĻā§āĻĻ āĻĒā§āϰāĻĨāĻŽāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻĒā§āϰā§āĻāĻž āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāϞ⧠āϝāϤāĻā§āĻā§ āĻāĻ āĻŋāύ āĻŽāύ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§ āĻĻā§āĻŦāĻŋāϤā§āϝāĻŧāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāϞ⧠āϤā§āϞāύāĻžāĻŽā§āϞāĻ āĻāĻŽ āĻāĻ āĻŋāύ āĻŽāύ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§āĨ¤ āϏā§āϤāϰāĻžāĻ āϝāϤāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻĒā§āύāϰāĻžāϝāĻŧ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻž āĻšāĻŦā§ āϤāϤā§āĻāĻžāĻ āϏāĻšāĻ āĻŽāύ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§āĨ¤
⧍āĨ¤ āĻ āύā§āĻā§āĻā§āĻĻāĻāĻŋāĻā§ āĻā§āĻā§āĻā§ āĻā§āĻ āĻā§āĻ āĻāĻžāĻā§ āĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻā§āϤ āĻāϰ⧠āĻĒāϝāĻŧā§āύā§āĻ āĻāĻāĻ āĻāϰ⧠āĻĢā§āϞāĻž:
āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻāĻāĻŋ āϏāĻŽā§āĻĒā§āϰā§āĻŖ āϞāĻžāĻāύ āĻŦāĻžāĻ āϞāĻžāĻāύ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻž āĻšāϝāĻŧā§ āĻā§āϞ⧠āϝ⧠āϏāĻāϞ āĻŦāĻžāĻā§āϝāĻā§āϞ⧠āĻĻā§āϰā§āĻŦā§āϧā§āϝ āϏā§āĻā§āϞ⧠āĻāύā§āĻĄāĻžāϰāϞāĻžāĻāύ āĻāϰ⧠āĻĢā§āϞāϤ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§ āĻāĻŦāĻ āĻā§āϰā§āϤā§āĻŦāĻĒā§āϰā§āĻŖ āĻĒāϝāĻŧā§āύā§āĻāĻā§āϞ⧠āĻŦā§āϰ āĻāϰ⧠āύāĻŋāϝāĻŧā§ āĻāϏāϤ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§āĨ¤ āĻāĻā§āĻāĻāĻŋ āĻĒāϝāĻŧā§āύā§āĻ āĻāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻļāĻŦā§āĻĻ āĻāĻŋāĻāĻŦāĻž āĻāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻā§āĻ āĻŦāĻžāĻā§āϝā§āϰ āϏāĻŽāύā§āĻŦāϝāĻŧā§ āϤā§āϰāĻŋ āĻšāϤ⧠āĻĒāĻžāϰā§āĨ¤ āĻĒāϝāĻŧā§āύā§āĻ āĻāĻāĻ āĻāϰāĻžāĻāĻž āĻ āĻŦāĻļā§āϝāĻ āĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϧāĻŋāĻŽāϤā§āϤāĻžāϰ āϏāĻžāĻĨā§ āĻāϰāϤ⧠āĻšāĻŦā§ āϝā§āύ āĻāĻāĻŦāĻžāϰ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻžāϰ āϏāĻžāĻĨā§ āϏāĻžāĻĨā§āĻ āĻāĻĒāĻŋāĻāĻāĻŋāϰ āĻāĻāĻāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻļā§āώ āĻ āĻāĻļ āĻŽāĻžāĻĨāĻžāϝāĻŧ āĻā§āϰāĻž āĻļā§āϰ⧠āĻāϰā§āĨ¤
ā§ŠāĨ¤ āĻŽāĻžāϰā§āĻāĻžāϰ āĻĒā§āύ āĻŦā§āϝāĻŦāĻšāĻžāϰ āĻāϰāĻž
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ā§ĒāĨ¤ āĻŦā§āĻļāĻŋ āĻŦā§āĻļāĻŋ āĻĒāĻĄāĻŧāĻž āĻ āĻ āύā§āĻļā§āϞāύ āĻāϰāĻž
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